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The Journal of Philosophywas founded in 1904 asThe Journal of Philosophy, Psychology, and Scientific Methodsby Frederick J. E. Woodbridge and J. McKeen Cattell. Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. Oxford: Blackwell. However, even though these countries may value human life less than the peoples of Western Europe and America, and even though Russia, in particular, has an immense space over which its vital industries could be dispersed and a government which can order this dispersion the day it is convinced that such a measure is necessary -- there is no doubt that Russia, too, will shudder at the possibility of a sudden, disintegration of Moscow and Leningrad, almost miraculously preserved in the present war, and of its new industrial cities in the Urals and Siberia. For the ascription of moral responsibility, it is my contention that it is not necessary that S could have done otherwise, as required by PAP in its original formulation. Thus, if the prospects of an agreement will be considered poor in the immediate future, the pros and cons of an early revelation of our possession of nuclear weapons to the world -- not only by their actual use against Japan, but also by a prearranged demonstration -- must be carefully weighed by the supreme political and military leadership of the country, and the decisions should not be left to the considerations of military tactics alone. Question 10. Therefore, only lacks of mutual trust, and not lack of desire for agreement, can stand in the path of an efficient agreement for the prevention of nuclear warfare. The best possible atmosphere for the achievement of an international agreement could be achieved if America could say to the world, "You see what sort of a weapon we had but did not use. We do not need, therefore, to draw on any notion of a pre-decision flicker of freedom. Thus, Jones cannot satisfy (a). How does he respond to the claim that the brainwasher is responsible for cult-man's actions (Principle of Transfer)? If this is the case, then we are in a position that is ultimately no different to the original formulation of PAP in which it is necessary that the subject could have done otherwise. This further condition which I am calling twin world explains why we are still justified in assigning moral responsibility to an agent who fails to satisfy PAP in the manner described within Frankfurts counter-example. A Princeton University senior sounded off on "The Ingraham Angle" in response to his op-ed in . Third parties often bring attention to topics that are unpopular or unknown. Do you agree that under certain circumstances, R2P should override sovereignty? answer choices. In both (1) and (2), S is morally responsible for E in W2 because, within each scenario, S satisfies PAP(s) in W2; and, as we have seen, PAP(s) provides sufficient justification for the ascription of moral responsibility. Jones is therefore morally responsible for his action (even in a world corresponding to W1) in virtue of doing what he would have done in a world where alternate possibilities exist (namely, W2). Widerker, D. (1995). The advantage of PAP(s) over Frankfurts original PAP, however, is that should (a) and/or (b) fail to be satisfied then this does not rule out the possibility that S is nevertheless morally responsible for E. Under the terms of the original PAP, the possibility just described would not exist; which of course Frankfurt, through the use of his counter-example, tried to show was an erroneous outcome: for, intuitively, we feel that S is still responsible for what he does, even though he could not have done otherwise. Example 1. contemporaries who agreed with franck's argumentmarc d'amelio house address. Since its founding it has been published fromColumbia University. Connect to Locke's argument about the prisoner. From this point of view, a demonstration of the new weapon might best be made, before the eyes of representatives of all the United Nations, on the desert or a barren island. What is it supposed to show, and why? The first and perhaps the simplest way is to ration the raw materialsprimarily, the uranium ores. In this case, there are alternate possibilities, of course, thereby making it possible for S to do other than he did; but there are no alternate possibilities that do not involve a morally repugnant outcome; meaning that S cannot engage in any action that does not result in an immoral act occurring. Atomic bombs containing a larger quantity of active material but still weighing less than one ton may be expected to be available within ten years which could destroy over ten square miles of a city. Focusing on organic growth, Wright sees it as the natural next step for humanity to remove itself from busy city life based on (what he saw as) likely future innovations in transportation. If indeterminism is true, then nothing prior to the choice could indicate which way he will go. Modified Frankfurt-type counterexamples and flickers of freedom. Fischer, J. M. (2002). The principle of alternate possibilities. the secretaries (leaders) of the departments of the executive branch. Both architects had utopian, all-encompassing plans for their ideal American city, combining social as well as architectural ideas. Le Corbusiers opinions of technology during his time continue to ring eerily true today. Contemporaries who agreed with Franck's argument in the second and third paragraphs regarding the need for an international agreement would most likely have made which of the following arguments to support their problem- The peace agreements should ensure that Germany could never threaten the stability of Europe again. I argue that PAP does not need to be endorsed as a necessary condition for moral responsibility and, in fact, presenting PAP as a sufficient condition maintains its usefulness as a maxim for moral accountability whilst avoiding Frankfurt-style counter-examples. Elzein, N. (2013). This new discovery had an immense amount of potential as a weapon of war. Principle of Alternative Possibilities (PAP). Erkenntnis, 78, 10371049. a) In his opening sentence, Wright implores us not to childishly try to tear the city down to get the green country in and set the city up in it again on its old site feudal towers a little further apart, in an obvious first punch. I conclude by arguing that while neither PAP(s) nor the twin world condition is necessary for an ascription of moral responsibility, given that each nevertheless makes reference to alternate possibilities in some form or other (as yet to be discussed), what is necessary is that one of these condition is satisfied: for where both fail to be satisfied, one cannot hold the agent of action morally responsible. Jefferson's key arguments for independence consisted primarily of the Crown's imposition of taxes and trade restrictions onto the Colonies, but was quite clear about the issue not being the severity of the offense but much more in that the Crown had overstepped lines of mutual respect and consent, ie "No Taxation Without Representation." The consequences of nuclear warfare, and the type of measures which would have to be taken to protect a country from total destruction by nuclear bombing, must be as abhorrent to other nations as to the United States. In short, where the conditions inherent within both PAP(s) and Frankfurts original PAP are met namely, clauses (a) and (b) then PAP(s), as a maxim for moral accountability, is as effective as PAP at ascribing moral responsibility. ArchDaily 2008-2023. "For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences.". It is true that some irrational element in mass psychology makes gas poison more revolting than blasting by explosives, even though gas warfare is in no way more "inhuman" than the war of bombs and bullets. What does Frankfurt mean by "wholehearted commitment"? The aim of this paper is to present a version of the principle of alternate possibilities (PAP) which is not susceptible to the Frankfurt-style counter-example. They did not become known as "The Federalist Papers" until the 20th century. Dennett's Luther Argument ("character examples"). Answer: Explanation: Background In 1938, a small group of German scientists accidentally discovered nuclear fission. Our possibilities of retaliation -- even if retaliation should be considered adequate compensation for the loss of millions of lives and destruction of our largest cities -- will be greatly handicapped because we must rely on aerial transportation of the bombs, and also because we may have to deal with an enemy whose industry and population are dispersed over a large territory. Ultimately, they would argue that only through collective action and cooperation can we ensure global peace and security in the nuclear age. Where neither is satisfied then S is not morally responsible for performing E. Frankfurt-style scenarios illustrate the condition under which PAP(s) is not satisfied. As is well documented, this scenario led Frankfurt to conclude that PAP is false because, intuitively, we want to assign moral responsibility to Jones in this situation even though clauses (a) and/or (b) are not met and so he could not have done otherwise: a necessary condition for moral responsibility under the original PAP. The answer to this question was given above -- the compelling reason for creating this weapon with such speed was our fear that Germany had the technical skill necessary to develop such a weapon and that the German government had no moral restraints regarding its use. We are fully aware of the staggering difficulties involved in such a radical change in the social and economic structure of our nation. joe turner's come and gone audiobook Tuesday, June 14th, 2022 fleming's chocolate gooey butter cake recipe nostratic language examples meadow glens elementary school report card Responsibility and inevitability. SUMMARY OF THE ARGUMENT In our constitutional democracy, all persons who reside within the United Statesincluding The Psychology Today interview with Jean Piaget took place in 1970 at the height of his influence. Third parties shift voters' attention away from major-party candidates. d) The presidents cabinet consists of Whether this would have been the case is evidenced by the congruence (or lack thereof) between E in W1 and W2. This is a difficult problem, but we think it soluble. Opponents contend, among other arguments, that the bombings were unnecessary to win the war or that they constituted a war crime or genocide. In this sense, it is more akin to the clause if it were the case rather than given that it is. If no choice of targets, with a total area of five hundred square miles of American territory, contains a large enough fraction of the nation's industry and population to make their destruction a crippling blow to the nation's war potential and its ability to defend itself, then the attack will not pay, and may not be undertaken. b) The achievement of such an agreement will thus essentially depend on the integrity of intentions and readiness to sacrifice the necessary fraction of one's own sovereignty, by all the parties to the agreement. Frankfurt Examples. He received his LL.M. Garry Young. Leon, F., & Tognazzini, N. A. He decided to do this without the intervention of Black, and so made this decision oblivious to the fact that he could not have decided nor done other than he did. In the absence of an international authority which would make all resort to force in international conflicts impossible, nations could still be diverted from a path which must lead to total mutual destruction, by a specific international agreement barring a nuclear armaments race. Japanese government propaganda instilled fierce, killing nationalism in the Japanese population, making Japan unlikely to surrender unconditionally without experiencing the effects of nuclear weapons of the following arguments would a supporter of using nuclear weapons against Japan have most likely cited to explain the limitations of Franck's arguments in the first and second paragraphs. Black is prepared to go to considerable lengths to get his way, but he prefers to avoid showing his hand unnecessarily. It is able to do this without succumbing to Frankfurt-style counter-examples. As for society and individual's relationship to it, Emerson believes that being an individual . Riding somewhat roughshod over this debate and allowing that the sign does not indicate an alternate possibility (and therefore a flicker of freedom) because we do not need it too the twin world condition requires a comparison between S (or Jones or whoever) in W1 (where we allow no alternate possibility to exist) with S in W2 (where alternate possibilities incontrovertibly exist). What is collective representation? Nevertheless, it is not at all certain that American public opinion, if it could be enlightened as to the effect of atomic explosives, would approve of our own country being the first to introduce such an indiscriminate method of wholesale destruction of civilian life. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield. The aim of this paper is to present a version of the principle of alternate possibilities (PAP) which is not susceptible to the Frankfurt-style counter-example. There is, however, a subtle but important distinction between PAP in its original formulation as a necessary condition and the manner in which the notion of alternate possibilities is presented within the twin world condition. 231248). Standingathomeplate\underline{\text{Standing at home plate}}Standingathomeplate, Jesus\boxed{\text{Jess}}Jesus faced the pitcher. Scientists have often before been accused of providing new weapons for the mutual destruction of nations, instead of improving their well-being. Another argument which could be quoted in favor of using atomic bombs as soon as they are available is that so much taxpayers' money has been invested in these Projects that the Congress and the American public will demand a return for their money. For the ascription of moral responsibility, what is necessary is that alternate possibilities have some role to play in whatever conditions we devise to determine who is responsible and who is not, and why. B At present, it may be that atomic bombs can be detonated with an effect equal to that of 20,000 tons of TNT. Philosophical Explorations, 8(2), 131143. (a) Describe: How does the father react to the stranger's request to look around? Published By: Journal of Philosophy, Inc. It must be stressed that if one takes the pessimistic point of view and discounts the possibility of an effective international control over nuclear weapons at the present time, then the advisability of an early use of nuclear bombs against Japan becomes even more doubtful -- quite independently of any humanitarian considerations. In fact, if the race for nuclear armaments is allowed to develop, the only apparent way in which our country can be protected from the paralyzing effects of a sudden attack is by dispersal of those industries which are essential for our war effort and dispersal of the populations of our major metropolitan cities. However, it need not prevent the production of radioactive elements on a scale sufficient to revolutionize the industrial, scientific and technical use of these materials, and would thus not eliminate the main benefits which nucleonics promises to bring to mankind. PAP(s) and the twin world condition are therefore both sufficient to ascribe moral responsibility to Jones or S or whoever, but PAP(s) is not necessary because moral responsibility could still be attributed to the subject where PAP(s) fails to be satisfied but (and therefore because) the twin world condition is satisfied. Finally, the twin world condition allows another aspect of the debate over the Frankfurt-style counter-examples to be side-stepped: namely, whether the sign used as an indicator of an impending decision which the counterfactual interveners uses as a marker of whether to intervene or not is sufficiently robust to count as evidence of an alternate possibility (Elzein 2013; Pereboom 2009). Whatever E happens to be, it is congruent across the different worlds within each respective scenario: E is congruent across W1 and W2 within scenario 1 and congruent across W1 and W2 within scenario 2. Csar Franck Biography. In the original Frankfurt paper, Jones is written as Jones4, owing the fact that at previous points in his paper, Frankfurt had discussed other versions of Jones (Jones 13). The Principle of Alternate Possibilities as Sufficient but not Necessary for Moral Responsibility: A way to Avoid the Frankfurt Counter-Example, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11406-016-9690-2, Moral Responsibility, Alternative Possibilities, and Acting on Ones Own, Individually Sufficient and Disjunctively Necessary Conditions for Moral Responsibility, The Robustness Requirement on Alternative Possibilities, Problems with Rowlands Practical Conciliationism, How (not) to construct worlds with responsibility, In Search of the Trinity: A Dilemma for Parfits Conciliatory Project, Being and holding responsible: Reconciling the disputants through a meaning-based Strawsonian account, Lueck, Bryan: Obligation and the fact of sense, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, 2019, ISBN: 978 1 4744 4272 5. All of us, familiar with the present state of nucleonics, live with the vision before our eyes of sudden destruction visited on our own country, of a Pearl Harbor disaster repeated in thousand-fold magnification in every one of our major cities. In his original article, Frankfurt suggests that a twitch might be used to indicate that Jones is about to decide to do A (as opposed to no twitch for B).